Social Changes
- Housework in the 19th century
- Children's tasks in the 19th century home
- Changing roles of women in the home
Technological Changes
Services
- Electricity
- Gas
- Plumbing
Appliances
- Stoves
- Electric Range
- Refrigerators
- Gadgets
- Irons
- Vacuum Cleaners
- Washing Machines
- Fans
The 19th century home
The organization, physical effort and tools used to do housework b
efore modern household equipment became available were the result of a home life based on mutual interdependence। The family in the 19th century was a unit of production। Today the family is mainly a unit of consumption. Many of the items required for their daily needs were produced at home and purchases were limited to a short list of goods: tea, coffee and sugar were highly prized and sparingly used. Metal items such as stoves, pots, tools and guns were purchased because only skilled artisans were able to make them. Many other tools such as wooden spoons and washboards were made once the family was settled.
In rural areas, services such as heat, water and waste disposal had to be provided and maintained on a daily basis by the family unit whose implements were tools rather than machines. Women were responsible for the growing, buying, preservation and preparation of the family's food.
Particularly in rural areas, tasks were clearly divided between the men and women। For homesteading couples, marriage was a means of survival. It was this mutual interdependence which became lost as the home became modernized. Men cared for the wheat and grew the flax, but women took care of the garden. Men cut and hauled the wood for the fires, women did the cooking. Some tasks such as carrying water, milking cows, peeling apples and weaving were performed by both men and women.
efore modern household equipment became available were the result of a home life based on mutual interdependence। The family in the 19th century was a unit of production। Today the family is mainly a unit of consumption. Many of the items required for their daily needs were produced at home and purchases were limited to a short list of goods: tea, coffee and sugar were highly prized and sparingly used. Metal items such as stoves, pots, tools and guns were purchased because only skilled artisans were able to make them. Many other tools such as wooden spoons and washboards were made once the family was settled.In rural areas, services such as heat, water and waste disposal had to be provided and maintained on a daily basis by the family unit whose implements were tools rather than machines. Women were responsible for the growing, buying, preservation and preparation of the family's food.
Particularly in rural areas, tasks were clearly divided between the men and women। For homesteading couples, marriage was a means of survival. It was this mutual interdependence which became lost as the home became modernized. Men cared for the wheat and grew the flax, but women took care of the garden. Men cut and hauled the wood for the fires, women did the cooking. Some tasks such as carrying water, milking cows, peeling apples and weaving were performed by both men and women.
Children in the 19th century home
In the rural Ontario home, the nature of children's labour varied according to th
eir age, sex, position in the family and time of year. The average rural family had from five to six children and children's labour at small, time-consuming tasks freed the parents to clear land and break soil. Most children were not asked to help before the age of five as they lacked the necessary dexterity, judgement and physical strength. Therefore, they were left to play and watch the older members of the family.
Boys became useful at around 5 to 7 years of age and were given simple jobs such as bringing in firewood and water, gathering eggs and feeding chickens. By the age of 10 they began work in the field hoeing crops, driving the team for harrowing and raking and learning to milk. By 14 most boys were working as men, doing all the jobs on the farm -- chopping wood, ploughing, threshing, etc.
Daughters became useful at an early age and by 6 years most girls knew how to spin, knit and sew. They also watched younger children, freeing their mothers for tasks such as weaving. By ages 8 to 12 they would sweep, do dishes, set the table, mend clothing, do basic cooking, feed poultry and take care of the garden. By 14 to 16 a girl was considered to be a woman and could do any job around the house including washing clothes, ironing, cleaning floors and grates. It was rare that girls went to work in the fields.
School did not become compulsory for children until 1871 with the Ontario School Act। All children between 7 and 12 years of age were to attend school at least 4 months a year. Mechanization in the latter half of the 19th century, in fact, extended the schooling given to rural children as many of their tasks were taken over by machines. Children were now mainly needed for harvesting which was done over the summer when they were home.
DOMESTIC TECHNOLOGY-PART-2
1910-1920Wealthy households during this period did not show noticeable changes. Most were equipped for electric devices, but they were not the main market for appliances.
Despite the short supply of domestic staff during the years of war production, most homes were not equipped with electric washing machines. Even if labour-saving devices were available, not all servants appreciated them. The mistress of the house soon found more work to be done if servants were finished their primary tasks early.
The middle-class housewife was still the significant target of the market as the time and labour-saving capabilities of electrical technology were important to her.
As a result of "home production" and wages earned at the munitions factories, working-class households began to purchase small appliances such as disc stoves।
Upper-class women now had "day servants" instead of live-i
n staff, but were otherwise not profoundly affected by the new technologies. Middle-class women, however, were directly affected. It appeared, on the surface, that the new technology would lighten the load of domestic chores. But, influenced by advertising, the standards of housework increased, so that instead of gaining more leisure time, the housewife was expected to do more in the home with these labour-saving devices. In addition, the middle-class housewife ceased to be a manager and became a worker, and the time required to use the "mechanical servants" was the same as the time required to supervise domestic help. In addition, women now went out to shop as deliveries decreased and the automobile became more available.
Child care was an area of responsibility which continued to take a great deal of time and, without domestic help, it fell to the housewife।
n staff, but were otherwise not profoundly affected by the new technologies. Middle-class women, however, were directly affected. It appeared, on the surface, that the new technology would lighten the load of domestic chores. But, influenced by advertising, the standards of housework increased, so that instead of gaining more leisure time, the housewife was expected to do more in the home with these labour-saving devices. In addition, the middle-class housewife ceased to be a manager and became a worker, and the time required to use the "mechanical servants" was the same as the time required to supervise domestic help. In addition, women now went out to shop as deliveries decreased and the automobile became more available.Child care was an area of responsibility which continued to take a great deal of time and, without domestic help, it fell to the housewife।
By 1890, entrepreneurs had established electrical generating facilities in all of Canada's provinces. Electric technology required the establishment of a method of distribution before it could be used. As a result, the first customers were in or near urban centres. In 1910, Berlin (Kitchener), Ontario became the first municipality to be connected to the provincial public power grid. In Ontario this power grid was fund
ed by the government; in Quebec it was funded privately.
From 1890 to 1910 much experimentation with electric technology as an alternative to traditional cooking and heating processes took place. At the turn of the century, two basic shortcomings of the existing electric technology were the lack of the ability to produce heat (through resistance) and the lack of motive power (small motors). Originally this experimentation occurred under the direction of private inventors, but Corporations soon began to do research as well. Both General Electric and Westinghouse had established factories in Canada, and their management felt research into electric technology to be of value.
ed by the government; in Quebec it was funded privately.Electricity had been used for little else but lighting since Thomas Edison patented his incandescent lamp in 1879. With the expanding electrical power grid throughout he country, small household appliances went from experimental to commercial production. The first small appliance to be electrified was the fan, but the most popular was the clothes iron. In addition disc stoves, heaters, curling tong heaters and sewing machine motors followed in rapid succession.
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Gas
Gas had been used as a fuel source for lighting in central Canada since the 1850s. Until the 1950s most of the gas used was coal gas, not natural gas. In general, gas was a fuel of the urban dweller and, at first, the competition between electricity and gas was in street lighting. Gas was already in many homes for cooking (since the 1880s) in addition to gas-fired irons and space heaters.
Electrical appliances did not start to appear until the early 1900s. The competition between electricity and gas began in the 1920s and intensified in the 1930s, particularly in the area of cooking and heating. Although electric appliance manufacturers would not admit it, gas ranges were definitely more reliable and efficient until the 1930s.
In the 1950s, Consumers Gas began transferring the source of supply used to service its Toronto customers from locally produced coal gas to natural gas imported from western Canada. (Coal gas or methane is produced by a variety of processes in which hydrogen reacts with coal.) Pipelines from the west and south underwent great expansion in this period in order to service new customers with natural gas.
Electrical appliances did not start to appear until the early 1900s. The competition between electricity and gas began in the 1920s and intensified in the 1930s, particularly in the area of cooking and heating. Although electric appliance manufacturers would not admit it, gas ranges were definitely more reliable and efficient until the 1930s.
In the 1950s, Consumers Gas began transferring the source of supply used to service its Toronto customers from locally produced coal gas to natural gas imported from western Canada. (Coal gas or methane is produced by a variety of processes in which hydrogen reacts with coal.) Pipelines from the west and south underwent great expansion in this period in order to service new customers with natural gas.
During the 19th century, services such as lighting or running water were confined to the urban middle-upper class. By 1860, seven Canadian cities had public waterworks. During the second half of the century, domestic plumbing and sewage systems became available to a large number of urban, middle class Canadian homes. The poor did not have plumbing until after 1900, although many rural homes had their own well. With mass production, standardization, and the installation of fixtures, indoor plumbing boomed after World War I (1918). By the 1930s, most urban homes had running water.
Indoor plumbing allowed women to stay inside but reduced the social interaction with their neighbors around the well. It also increased their time to do other tasks as they were relieved from the heavy burden of fetching water for the housework.
DOMESTIC TECHNOLOGY-PART-3
Stoves
Fireless Cooking
The first technological approach to these conditions was the "Fireless Cooker" which sought to utilize as little electricity as possible by adopting a heavily insulated enclosed cooking cavity। In addition, the heating element in this cooker was not required to operate at particularly high temperatures. Manufacturers of fireless cookers emphasized the fact that their devices consumed very little electricity. The "Cope man Automatic Cooker" likely represented the leading edge of fireless cooker technology, circa 1912.
The second technological approach culminated in the electric range। Many ranges were created by combining existing electric cooking devices. These ranges, exemplified by the Simplex model, were exhibited and used at a ceremony for the first meal cooked by electricity, in Berlin (Kitchener), Ontario. They consisted of several electrically heated disc stoves and a broiler mounted on top of an electrically heated oven. Rather than appearing as a co-coordinated unit, the device consisted of a disjointed but familiar compilation of small electric appliances. To a homeowner familiar with cooking on a conventional coal or wood range, however, some of these early electric units must have appeared quite innovative.
Because there was no need for a firebox, the early electric ranges could be built of a much lighter construction। It was possible to place the oven at any location in the cabinet, and to install either an open or closed storage shelf under the oven where the firebox/ash-box would have been. The heavy nickel-plated cast iron feet, firebox and fittings of the earlier coal/wood range were replaced by black enameled sheet metal and angle iron construction.
From the perspective of food preparation, there was a major difference between electric ranges and fireless cookers। The oven in an electric range was designed to be a relatively dry environment. With the exception of the earliest electric ranges, almost all had some sort of moisture vent pipe leading out the back of the oven. This made it possible to brown roasts and to develop crisp crusts on baked goods. In order to facilitate this cooking/broiling action, most electric ranges were also equipped with an element attached to the roof of the oven.
Electric ranges differed most from their fireless cooking contemporaries in the amount of insulation around the oven compartment। Although there was insulation between the wall of the oven and the shell of the cabinet, it was more for the prevention of heat transfer to the cabinet exterior than for the retention of heat by the oven. Both cooking appliances were usually equipped with a thermometer in the oven door. Until truly automatic temperature control became available, it was essential to monitor the thermometer in order to turn the electricity "on" and "off" to maintain the desired cooking temperature.
Automatic oven control, which used a bimetallic switch for turning off the circuit and reconnecting it when the temperature fell below a preset level, was another feature added to electric ranges in the 1920s। A clock timing device for setting the oven to come on at a particular time also came as an option in the mid-1920s.
In the period after 1920, refrigerating units began the move from large industrial food lockers and ice making plants to the homes of North America। Prior to that time, ice boxes, introduced in the mid-nineteenth century, were used to keep foodstuffs cool in most Canadian urban homes.
The Ice Box
An ice box consisted of a heavily insulated wooden or metal rectangular box into which a block of ice was placed. The exterior was traditionally made of wood. To prevent the walls from rotting as a result of high humidity levels, the interior walls were made of zinc coated tin or enameled sheet metal.
After 1900, many ice box manufacturers began to introduce units which had enameled metal both on the outside and inside surfaces। This material was touted for the simplicity of keeping it clean. By the 1890s, much of the ice used in domestic ice boxes in large urban centers was manufactured rather than naturally derived.
Mechanical Refrigeration
The first generation of household mechanical refrigerators appeared on the North American market shortly after 1915. In mechanical refrigeration, a liquid or gaseous refrigerant replaces the block of ice. The refrigerant is either heated or pressurized to the point of vaporization; the vapor passes into the cabinet of the unit, absorbs heat, flows out, condenses/releases trapped heat and is recycled.
Mechanical refrigeration relies on two techniques to process the refrigerant --absorption or compression.
Absorption requires the use of a heat source such as a gas or kerosene flame to vaporize the refrigerant.
Compression requires the refrigerant to be pressurized/vaporized by mechanical means. In the domestic sphere, the motive power for the compressor is the fractional horsepower motor.
These two techniques relied on fundamentally different technologies associated with competing fuel sources: absorption with natural or coal gas, and compression with electricity। The gas refrigerator was technologically the most simple as it had no moving parts except for the thermostat that ignited the flame.
Gas or Electric?
The circumstances of how these two technologies competed for dominance is an example of the power of marketing and industrial strategy. The big American manufacturing industry looked at the two technologies, observed that compressor technology required an electric motor and, because it had close ties with the electric utility industry, chose to concentrate its efforts and dollars on the development of that technology.
In the US, companies the size of General Electric and General Motors were involved in the development of refrigerating technology and as a result had the funding for research and development which the absorption/gas technology did not have. By 1927, these firms had accumulated a great deal of experience in designing marketing campaigns; all of these forces and techniques were brought to bear in promoting the compression refrigerator.
Problems Introducing Refrigeration to the Home
One of the most important factors preventing the transfer of refrigeration technology to the home was its scale. Domestic refrigeration awaited the reduction of the size of components before it could be established.
Another stumbling block was the selection of an appropriate refrigerant. A variety of refrigerants including carbon dioxide, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, and methyl chloride were used. By the mid-1930s most refrigerants were either sulphur dioxide or methyl chloride until the introduction of chlorofluorohydrocarbon, or Freon which was non-flammable, non-toxic and non-explosive and had a remarkable ability to absorb and dissipate heat. It took decades before this gas was recognized as a major factor in the depletion of the ozone layer.
The most common problem of refrigerators of the mid-1920s was refrigerant leaks around the compressor piston gland. The majority of early machines relied on an evaporator or "brine tank" to assist in the absorption of heat from the contents of the refrigerator cabinet. The "tank" was in reality a large sealed honeycomb, configured around two to four slot-like openings in which ice cube trays could be placed.
Until the mid-1920s, most of these domestic refrigerating machines were designed to retrofit existing domestic ice boxes. Due to its size, the compressor assembly was placed either alongside the ice box, in the basement or on a covered porch. Two lines connected it to the heat extraction mechanism which was placed where there had previously been a block of ice. Even when the consumer purchased a complete unit, the refrigerating mechanism was often manufactured by a different firm than the cabinet.
In 1925, General Electric introduced its first "monitor-top" refrigerator in which the refrigeration unit was mounted on the top of the cabinet. This was the first refrigerator in which the refrigerating mechanism and cabinet had been integrated. The integration greatly altered the appearance of the appliance, and because the motor/compressor unit was hermetically sealed, the number of refrigerant leaks was substantially reduced.
Before 1930, marketing of refrigerators focused on their modernity and their ability to ensure that foods were kept cold. They were very expensive (a 1926 Kelvinator ranged from $340 - $610) and consumed a lot of electricity. Because it was in constant use, it generated a monthly bill second only to the electric range.
By the mid-1940s it was possible to purchase a refrigerator with a separate freezer compartment. One problem which affected customer satisfaction was the extraction of moisture from the air inside the refrigerator and dehydration of perishable goods. In an effort to reduce this problem, the refrigerators were compartmentalized.
One design feature introduced by both General Electric and IHC (International Harvester Co.) refrigerators was a foot operated door latch. It disappeared by the mid-1950s.
In general, gadgets were expensive and, until the advent of mass production and a national distribution system, were beyond the reach of the average family.
Gear mechanisms were incorporated into a variety of small gadgets which promised to reduce labour and increase efficiency. These machines looked much different than their tool precursors. This was because they were organized to allow repetitive rotary motion to perform the task (egg beater, apple parer, potato peeler).
Kerosene lamp with boiler, circa 1868
Examples of Interesting Gadgets
Apple parer ca 1890 -Dried apples were an important part of Canadian winter diets. Every fall, the average Canadian family pared and cut up to 200 bushels of apples. Paring could be done by hand with a sharp knife although this method was slow and semi-mechanical parers came into use as early as 1803. The cutting blade was attached to a threaded shaft or a set of gears, which caused the tool to travel across the surface of the apple as it was rotated by a hand crank. These utensils were later elaborated with the addition of a coring attachment and an arm to push off the pared apple.
Can opener - The first practical can opener was developed 50 years after the birth of the metal can in England in 1810. British soldiers in 1812 tore open cans with bayonets, pocket knives and rifle fire. These early cans were large, thick-walled, made of iron and were sometimes heavier than the foods they held. Only when thinner cans of steel came into use in the late 1850's was it possible to create a can opener, patented in 1858. The can opener we use today, with a cutting wheel that travels around the rim, was invented in 1870. The only change from the original patent was the introduction of a serrated rotation wheel.
Egg beater - The egg beater was one of two technological innovations which were purchased in sufficient numbers to make a substantial impact on American cooking (the other was the cast-iron stove). In the Sears' 1897 catalogue a "Dover" egg beater sold for 9¢.
"Ironing was usually done the day after washday. First the clothes had to be dampened by sprinkling with water, rolled and left to sit from one to 12 hours. Three to six irons, each rubbed with beeswax and wiped before each use, stayed hot on a piece of sheet iron set on a hearth free from cinder or ashes, and later on the stove. Every iron fresh from the fire had to be tried on a piece of paper or spare cloth to be sure that it would not scorch the cloth. Large articles were ironed on tables, covered with a woolen ironing blanket and then a linen or cotton ironing sheet. By 1894, Montgomery Ward offered three different folding ironing boards."
(Strasser, S. Never Done. New York: Pantheon Books, 1982. p.108).
The Introduction of Electricity
Because electricity was first used for lighting the home, most power companies, as late as 1905, turned on the generators at sunset and turned them off at daybreak. The family wishing to benefit from the new electrical appliances could not do so during the day. A meter reader from California, who was developing an electric iron, convinced the power companies to turn on the electric power for one 24-hour period on Tuesdays (ironing day). The experiment paid off and because of it, the plant gradually extended its hours of operation.
The electric iron was first patented in 1882 and first sold in the US in 1893. It relieved women of the hot work of continually heating heavy flat irons, although it was not until 1927 and the introduction of the thermostat that ironing became an easier chore. Irons were previously either "off” or "on" and the heat was controlled by unscrewing the iron from the light socket, or unplugging the cord from the iron. Most electric irons still weighed more than five pounds which made ironing fatiguing, hot work, as the heat from the soleplate radiated up the handle. In addition, the electric element was separated from the metal portions of the iron only by a thin sheet of mica resulting in the hazard of an electric shock. When the power cord twisted during use there was a tendency for the iron to short-circuit.
By 1920, a pressed metal construction made irons lighter and minimized the transfer of heat from the element to the user's hand. Manufacturers also introduced irons with a coiled wire collar mounted where the cord connected with the iron. This reduced the problem of short-circuits.
Fine Tuning the Iron
With the development of the thermostat, or bimetallic temperature control in the 1920s; high, medium and low temperature settings were introduced. Shortly thereafter the control unit was modified into a disk which could flex at any point. This allowed for an infinite variety of temperature settings. New materials reduced the weight of irons. Manufacturers introduced permanently attached cords, reinforced with rubber and often a coiled spring where the cord fastened to the iron. After 1940, the majority of changes in the clothes iron were related to convenience and special functions.
Saunders Pyrex Iron, circa 1943
Steam Irons
In the late 1930s, the modern steam iron was introduced to assist in removing wrinkles and to prevent scorching. Not until the late 1950s did General Electric develop an iron which could be used dry, for steam or to spray water. Steam irons had been used in commercial laundries since the early 1900s; however they were twice the size of a conventional iron and weighed one third more.Prior to the introduction of "electric suction cleaners", most housewives used brooms and dust pans. Many of the mid-Victorian homes had large "Ax Minster" or "Turkish" carpets on the floors of principal rooms. In order to remove dirt, dust and animal dander from the nap of these floor coverings, the carpets were removed from the home and beaten with a device similar to an oversized fly swatter called a rug beater.
By the 1890s, wealthier households were using a semi-mechanized suction cleaning device in which the operator or an assistant pumped a set of bellows to create suction. In 1901, an English inventor, H. Cecil Booth, patented his suction cleaner. The first commercial vacuum cleaner was huge - the size of a modern refrigerator - with a pump, dust-collecting chamber and power unit. It had to be transported along London streets on a dolly and was used for offices, theatres and private homes. A long, flexible hose was brought into the home, often through a window.
The vacuum cleaner greatly improved sanitation and health. Tons of germ-laden dust was removed from theatre seats, home and shop floors. One of Booth's first assignments was to vacuum the vast expanse of blue carpet in Westminster Abbey for the 1901 coronation of Edward VII. During World War I, Booth hauled 15 of his machines to the Crystal Palace and for two weeks they sucked up the dirt from floors, walls, staircases and girders. Twenty-six truckloads of dust were carted away and buried. This helped eliminate a spotted fever epidemic which was beginning to take hold of naval reserve men who were living in the building.
Upright model vacuum cleaners introduced between 1910 and 1920, operated on two principles. One used a fan to suck dust and dirt into a Kenney patented "renovator" or nozzle where it passed to a cloth bag suspended vertically on the handle. The second, produced by the Hoover Suction Sweeper Company, used a fan combined with a rotating head which was intended to loosen dirt prior to its being sucked into the bag. In 1920, a vacuum cleaner cost about $50.00 and the attachments about $14.00. The majority of vacuums used in Canada at this time were manufactured in the United States.
After 1940, two distinct types of vacuum cleaners were made: the canister and the broomstick. Canister models relied on the suction of a high speed fan and were sold with a series of attachments. Broomstick models used the beater head technology.
The design and manufacture of vacuum cleaners was greatly affected by plastic which was both easily worked and light in weight. Plastic also supplanted other materials in the manufacture of vacuum cleaner wheels. By the 1960s, in some cases, only the motor and axles were made of metal, the remaining parts of the machine were a variety of plastics. The vacuum cleaner eliminated the dust and dirt where germs bred. Its use improved the health of the family.
For centuries, people on sea voyages washed their clothes by placing the dirty laundry in a strong cloth bag, and tossing it overboard, letting the ship drag the bag for hours. The principle was sound: forcing water through clothes to remove dirt. Catharine Beecher, an early advocate of bringing order and dignity to housework, called laundry "the American housekeeper's hardest problem". Women from all classes tried to find ways to get relief from doing laundry. Some hired washerwomen and others used commercial laundries. Eventually mechanical aids lightened the load.
(Strasser, Susan. Never Done. New York: Pantheon Books, 1982, p. 105)
The First Washing MachinesThe first electric clothes washers, in which a motor rotated the tub, were introduced into America about 1900. For a number of years, the motor was not protected beneath the machine and water often dripped into it causing short-circuits and jolting shocks.
In Canada, the first electric washing machines began to appear about 1910 and came from the facilities of established companies, unlike electric ranges which were produced by companies incorporated for that purpose. At this time, all washing machines were constructed with coopered cedar or cypress tubs and had either manual or powered wringers. They operated exactly like their manual predecessor except that now a motor instead of the operator's arm powered the mechanism. The machine still needed to be filled and drained manually, and each washed item put through the wringer.
By 1911, it was possible to buy oscillating, cylinder, domestic washing machines with sheet metal tubs mounted on angle-iron frames with perforated metal or wooden slat cylinders inside.
Manufacturing Challenges
From a technological perspective, washing machine manufacturers faced a number of challenges. These included discovering a method of transferring power from the motor to the mechanism, finding a suitable motor with sufficient initial starting torque, and ensuring that the operator did not get an electrical shock during operation.
In the transference of power, some washing machines were chain driven, some belt driven and others used shafts and gears.
To overcome the initial resistance in starting a washing machine, a fractional horsepower motor which would not burn out or overheat during the start-up period was used. This was usually a 1/8 or 1/4 horsepower motor, manufactured out-of-house by Westinghouse or Robbins and Myers.
To prevent electric shocks, the stator and rotor of the machine were enclosed in a housing equipped with a fan to prevent overheating.
Improvements
From the customer satisfaction perspective, a machine that would wash without shredding the clothes needed to be developed. This meant that if the original scrubbing machines were used, the machine had to be operated at different speeds for different textiles. To overcome the problem, washing machines that sloshed water through the clothing by agitation were developed. Either the tub moved or a baffle placed inside the tub moved.Early washing machines had a heavy, dirty, cast-iron mechanism mounted on the inside of the tub lid. The introduction of a metal tub and reduction gears to replace this bulky apparatus was a great improvement. By 1920, the coopered wooden tub was no longer being manufactured.
Beatty Brothers of Fergus, Ontario was the first company to produce an agitator washing machine. The early Beatty machines had ribbed copper tubs which were nickel or nickel-chromium plated. In the US, the first firm to adopt agitator technology was Maytag. The vertical orientation of these machines became the industry standard replacing the horizontal rotating axis of earlier machines.
Beatty Washing Machine Circa 1927
Starting in the 1920s, white enameled sheet metal replaced the copper tub and angle-iron legs. By the early 1940s, enameled steel was used and sold as being more sanitary, easier to clean and longer lasting than the other finishes. The sheet-metal skirt was also designed to extend below the level of the motor mount.
The next development of the washing machine was the fitting of a clock timing device which allowed the machine to be set to operate for a pre-determined length of wash cycle. Now, the operator no longer needed to constantly monitor its action.
By the early 1950s, many American manufacturers were supplying machines with a spin-dry feature to replace the wringer which removed buttons, and caused accidents involving hair and hands. In 1957, GE introduced a washing machine equipped with 5 push buttons to control wash temperature, rinse temperature, agitation speed and spin speed. The Washing Machine Gets its Own Room
It is interesting to note how technology and household design combined to change the placement of washing machines. Now that they had to be attached to a supply of hot and cold water, they were not equipped with casters. Because the washing machine was no longer mobile, a portion of the house was set aside permanently for its operation and storage. Where previously the washing machine was used in proximity to the kitchen sink and then rolled out of the way, now it was often relegated to the basement or given a room exclusively for its use!
Between 1892 and 1910, many small household appliances went from experimental to commercial production. Of these, the most viable was the electric fan.
By 1910, fans had reached a degree of sophistication whereby the basic device had fostered specialized offspring. It was possible to purchase desk and ceiling fans in several diameters, as well as such specialized devices as a horizontal fan outfitted with a fruit bowl that was designed to be placed on the dining room table. Most of this generation of desk and table fans was equipped with multiple setting speed control mechanisms. Eight years later, the oscillating mechanism had been perfected and was available as an option on desk fans.
When electric fans were introduced in the 1890s, they were not fitted with a guard mechanism around the blades. By 1910, the guard was integral to any product sold and sometimes assumed a decorative function.
Few of the early Canadian firms undertook to manufacture electric fans. Instead many electrical suppliers acted as agents for American-made products.
One small appliance, which gained prominence on the Canadian breakfast table in the period after 1910, was the electric toaster. The basis of this device was a ribbon of nichrome resistance wire wound on a flat sheet of mica or asbestos board. Most early electric toasters were not enclosed; instead, the bread rested on a wire frame on either side and in close proximity to the vertical element. Manufacturers soon introduced small racks on top of the toaster housing to keep the toast warm.
In order to toast both sides the bread had to be turned manually. By 1920, a number of manufacturers had introduced toasters with mechanical devices for reversing the slice of bread. However, it took almost ten years for doors to be added to enclose the toasting element.
The early toasters were designed to draw electricity from light sockets. Most were made of pressed and cast nickel-plated metal, however some were more ornate.
Star-Rite Toaster circa 1923
Between 1920 and 1940, the toaster underwent several major alterations. The first was the addition of housing and doors to upright models. Later, a curved piece of metal was added to the bottom edge of the inside surface of the toaster doors so that as the door was lowered the bread slid down and was reversed by the metal strip.
The evolution of the toaster demonstrates an important development in the electric appliance industry, that of automat city. Initially the toasting required both time and watchfulness on the part of the operator. In 1910, with the National Electric oven-type toaster both sides of the bread could be browned at the same time.
In the 1920s, a well-type toaster was introduced that featured a clock-timing mechanism that rang after the bread had been in the well for a pre-set period of time. Once the bell sounded, the power was switched off and a spring-loaded mechanism raised the toast. The problem with this method was that the toaster depended on time, rather than heat for doneness and toast made after the element had heated up could well be over done. To alleviate this problem, manufacturers began to incorporate a bimetallic strip which broke the circuit and shifted a lever to release the toast carrier once the inside of the well was sufficiently hot. Toasters with this "pop-up action" began to appear in catalogues around 1940.
